Embryonic And Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Biology Essay

Embryonic And Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Biology Essay INTRODUCTION: Stem cells are cells which are found in almost all multicellular organisms. Stem cells was proposed by a histologist Maksimov. A in 1908. They develop into many different types of cells in the body during their early life and growth and serve as a internal repair system in many tissues. Formation of new cells can be seen when stem cells division starts these new cells can either form a stem cell or other types of cells like muscle cells,brain and red blood cells with specialized functions. Stem cells are the objects in biomedical research and are differentiated from other types of cells by two main characteristics. Firstly, Stem cells are the undifferentiated cell types they possess the capacity of both self renewable during cell division. Secondly, Potency which means they can be differntiated into differnt types of specialized cells with specific function.(Bishop et.al., 2002). Stem cells can be totipotent and pluripotent. In some organs like gut or bone marrow the st em cells divide either to replace or repair the damaged or worn out tissues while in other organ system like pancreas they divide under some specific function Totipotent stem cells can give rise to a functional organism as well as to every cell type of the body. Pluripotent stem cells are capable of giving rise to any tissue type, but not to a functioning organism. Multipotent stem cells are more differentiated and thus can give rise only to a few tissue types. For example, a specific type of multipotent stem cell called a mesenchymal stem cell can produce bone, muscle, cartilage, fat, and other connective tissues. (Pittenger et.al., 1999). They are two types of Stem cells 1) Embryonic stem cells 2) Adult stem cells also known as somatic cell or tissue specific. Embryonic stem cells are derived from the blastocysts and are pluripotent instead of totipotent because they do not have the ability to become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta while the adult cells are present in adult tissues while the stem cells found in developed tissues are the Adult stem cells and the example for this is the hematopoietic stem cells of blood which cannot give rise to the cells of a different tissue, such as nerve cells in the brain (Frankel et.al.,1999). The difference between between embryonic and adult stem cells(somatic) is their origin that is embryonic cells can differntiate into any c ell types but adult stem cells are limited and can differentiate into the cells of their own tissue by this the grown cells wont be rejected by the immune system during treatment and these cells also differ by mutation frequency (James et.al.,2002). The stem cells derived from the human embryo is known as Human embryonic stem cells and these cells are for reproductive purpose. While, in 2006 researchers have observed new type of specialized adult cells this cells are called as Induced pluripotent cells (iPSCs). Parthenogenetic stem cells are also one type of stem cells derived from activated human oocytes USES: Stem cells are useful in treating diseases like diabetis and heart diseases and many works are being done on how to use stem cells for cell based therapies in treating diseases which is also called as regenerative medicine. Stem cells have the ability to replace the damaged cells and can be used in treating heart failures. spinal injuries and parkinsons diseases for example, neural stem cells are able tp regenerate nerve tissue damaged by spinal injury. Stem cells are useful in screening toxins in substances such as pesticides and also used during development of new methods for gene therapy that may help those who are suffering from genetic illiness. They are also used in pharmaceutical industry for testing the new drugs before testing on animal and humans. Induced pluripotent cells are the adult stem cells have been genetically remodelled to an embryonic stem like to express genes and factors which maintains the properties of embryonic stem cells. EMBRYONIC AND INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS: Embryonic stem cells are from the earliest stages of human embryo that develop into eggs by invitro fertilization while other embryos are developed for research and extracted after five days growth. It is known that embryonic stem cells divide indefinitely so only a single embryo can form lines of cells to use for treatment.(Thomson et.al.,1998) These cells are undifferentiated but has a ability to differentiate into any cell, tissue or organ in the body. These stem cells can also become nerve, muscle cells or any other type of human cells. The process involved in formation of ES cells is the ovaries are removed and after 76hours of copulation they are treated with media containing serum overnight.The following day the inner cell mass of embryos are removed and cultured on fibroblast after few weeks colonies grew which showed pluripotent characters referred to as ES cells. Embryonic stem cells are used to treat a host of diseases, such as Parkinsons disease, spinal cord injury, and d iabetes (Martins.,1981). For research, these embryos are destroyed in the process of deriving embryonic stem cells. ES cells have got a great potential for long term therapies but the issue arises regarding safety. Transplanted ES cells have uncontrolled growth and could generate tumours which is seen in laboratory cultures by scientists and there are not sure how they behave inside the body. So, this is to be studied before proceeded in clinical trials while another issue is tissues derived from the ES cells are rejected by patients immune system after transplantation. To overcome this issue tissue rejection currently, drugs can be used which suppresses the immune system but these drugs can be infectious thus drugs without any side effects are being investigated by the researchers or alternatively adult stem cells can be used. The major issue is in process of extracting the embryonic cells the embryos have to be destroyed this is opposed by many people and raises ethical issues. Al ternatives are being investigating by combining the stem cell technology with cloning by a method called (SCNT) somatic cell nuclear transfer.(Stewart et.al.,2007). It is a method which involves insertion of the nuclei of the somatic cell into the oocyte which develops into the embryo. This embryo derives the embryonic stem cell lines which is carried out in several mammalian species but till date No ES cells have been successfully developed by this method and also requires destruction of many embryos compared to other methods. And the other issue by usig this method is therauptic human cloning would lead to reproductive human cloning which leads to maral and social danger. The use of ES cells got many ethical issues as it is derived by destroying the embryos which raises fundamental concers of human life. (Tabar et.al.,2001). Problems associated with stem cell research according to the researchers embryonic stem cells are known for the cell baesd therapies as they are more versatile than adult stem cells but the same properties of these cells make them unusual for therapy as these will migrate all over the body and produce tumours. Growing and maintaining embryonic cell lines prove that they are problematic by performing experiments in mice as some of these get mutated and unusable to the patients. To overcome this problem adult stem cells acan be used to eliminate mutation tissue incompatibility. The pharmaceutical companies could not puruse these therapies due to financial incentives ( Phimister and drazen,2004). Recent advances in stem cells have new applications possible for stem cell based technology. It is now possible to reprogram differentiated human somatic cells into pluripotent cells that are functionally equivalent to embryonic stem cells. In 2006, specialized adult cells are been reprogrammed genetically to assume a stem cell like state called as Induced pluripotent stem cells. (Fenno.et.al., 2008). The use of ES cells as an alternative to oocytes which can be reprogrammed as an Human somatic cells. This can be done by fusion of human embryonic stem cells with fibroblasts which results hybrid cells.(Cowan et.al.,2005). These cells exhibits morphology and growth proper of embryonic stem cells and also express their genes. Transplantation of induced pluripotent cells into mice resulted in tumour containing variety of tissues on injection into the blastocyst showed mouse embryonic development This shows that Induced Pluripotent stem cells can be produced from fibroblast on addition wi th defined factors like oct3/4,Sox2 and klf4(Takahashi and Yamanaka.,2006). Researchers have demonstrated a novel technique for production of IPS cells by transforming Adult Skin cells which is considered as a fast reliable and safe method, viruses were used to insert the specific genes into the adult cell would result in increased potential for adverse outcomes and also increases the chance of genetic defects thus it would affect the patient treating with stem cell therapy.(Soldner et.al.,2009) Thus, alternatively transgenes or reprogramming proteins can used for insertion to overcome the risk and after induction using protein factors or virus free factors that can be removed to induce pluripotency which develops into IPS cells that does not have any risk.(Kaji et.al.,2009) As, IPS cells also raises ethical problems related to germline alterations. However using virus free factors can overcome the problem of germline alteration. In 2010, researchers have used Induced pluripotent stem cells to treat rodents suffering with parkinsons disease and this research was successfull this is done by transplanting the induced pluripotent cell neuron into the rodents mid brain injury which is similar to Parkinsons disease in humans by this the cells became functional and showed improvement. Thus induced pluripotent cells may be useful for future disease models and cell-based therapies. Induced pluripotent stem cells offer immense potential for regenerative medicine and studies of development and diseases. Thus analysis of genomic transcriptional activity, gene activation, allele specific gene expression and DNA methylation shows that the somatic cell was reprogrammed to an embryonic state which provides a system for investigating the mechanisms. To Induce pluripotent somatic properties which are similar to ES cells properties is done by introducing active genes or derivatives of RNA or protein products into the somatic cell but this process of acquiring pluripotency is not genetically but involves Epigenomic Reprogramming. There are differences between ES and IPSC cells regarding chromatin structure and gene expressionby showing few similarities while the other reports show that there is epigenetic differences and alteration. Reprogramming of a somatic cell into pluripotent state requires complete change of Somatic cell to an ES cell like state but this is not repo rted yet. On performing genomic profiling of the DNA methylomes of both ES and Induced pluripotent cells similarities are seen but every single line shows different reprogramming variability compared to both ES cells and other Induced pluripotent stem cells. Patterns of DNA methylation are seen as epigenetic change at the tips and centromeres of the chromososmes and show differences in CG methylation and histone modifications. Thus, Induced pluripotent cells may not be suitable substitute for embryonic cells. (Lister et.al., 2011). CONCLUSION: Human embryonic stem (ES) cell research has been the best way for the cell-based therapies for a number of diseases but the issue raises with destroying the embryos to produce these cells. The use of IPS cells has less ethically problematic than the use of Embryonic cells as production Of IPS cells does not require destroying the embryos. But the use of induced pluripotent cells raises ethical concerns to somatic cell reprogramming as there is a difference seen between the ES and Ips cells and the debate over stem cell therapy is increasingly becoming irrelevant but ethical issues regarding the Embryonic stem cells would not entirely go away.So, the study of all the types of stem cells should be done as it is not known which is useful for the cell replacement therapticus.

Talkin the Talk: An Examination of Black English in the American Education System :: Free Essays Online

Talkin the Talk: An Examination of Black English in the American Education System How many people here believe that schools should require the use of standard English at all times? That schools should respect all languages? How many people believe that Ebonics is a legitimate language that should not be compared to standard English? Most of you are probably wondering why I am interested in Ebonics. Obviously I’m not black. But, that does not mean that I can’t take an interest in the success of my friends and classmates. I attended Amherst Regional High School in Amherst, Massachusetts. My town is supposedly a liberal, open-minded place. But I always wondered why there were very few black students in my advanced-level classes and how come some of the black friends I had in the beginning of the year were no longer around at the end. I talked to one of my friends about this once. She told me that many black students in our school had moved from a nearby city and that they were not used to the academic standards of the school. Many of them became discouraged due to the lack of support of the teachers and some students even dropped out. This is a problem. In my opinion, many teachers do not respect students’ cultures if they are not a part of the mainstream, white culture. Although language is on ly one part of this respect, it is a large part of every student’s culture. Even though there has been a movement to improve inner-city schools and increase the success of black students, these programs would benefit any school around the country. Although the debate over the legitimacy of Ebonics as a language had been burning out, the Oakland school board decision in 1996 re-sparked this debate. Every marking period, in the Oakland school district, many African-American students brought home report cards singed with bad grades. In a school district where 53% of the student population is African-American, what concerned the school board was that these black students accounted for 71 percent of "special needs" students and received an average GPA of 1.8, compared to the average of 2.4 for all other students (Perry xi). It was time to correct that problem. The school board of Oakland, California organized a task force to do just this. The Ebonics Resolution, as the plan was called, recognized Ebonics as a legitimate language that deserved respect within the classroom.

Interventions: Special Education Essay

Monitoring development through observations, making assessments and targeting interventions can help lessen the likelihood of delays for children who are already at risk and can also prevent children who are not at risk from becoming at risk. Early intervention services include a variety of different resources and programmes that provide support to enhance a child’s development. These services are specifically tailored to meet a child’s individual needs. Services include: ? Assistive technology (devices a child might need) ? Audiology or hearing services ? Counselling and training for a family  ? Educational programmes ? Medical services ? Nursing services ? Nutrition services ? Occupational therapy ? Physical therapy ? Psychological services ? Respite services ? Speech/language Identify and meet any additional educational needs The Education Acts and the SEN Code of Practice provide frameworks for settings to identify and meet any additional educational needs. The Education Act 1996 states that a child or young person has special educational needs if â€Å"he or she has a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for him or her†. Children with special educational needs all have learning difficulties and/or disabilities that make it harder for them to learn than most other children of the same age. These children may need extra or different help from that given to other children of the same age. The extra or different help could be a different way of teaching certain things, some help from an extra adult, or the use of a particular piece of equipment like a computer or a desk with a sloping top. Children may require extra or different help because they suffer from one or more difficulties such as: ? Physical or sensory difficulties ? Emotional and behavioural problems ? Problems with thinking and understanding ? Difficulties with speech and language ? How they relate to and behave with other people These problems could mean that a child has difficulties with all of their school work or problems could arise in particular areas of their work such as: ? Understanding information ? Reading, writing and number work ? Expressing themselves or understanding what others are saying ? Behaving properly in school ? Organising themselves? Forming relationships with other children or with adults The law says that children do not have learning difficulties just because their first language is not English, but of course some of these children may have learning difficulties in addition. To help make an early identification of those children who may have special educational needs, schools must regularly measure children’s performance and progress. These assessments can be made by referring to: ? Ongoing observation and assessment monitored by the teacher ? Standardised screening or assessment tools ? The outcomes from baseline assessment results ? The objectives specified in the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategy Frameworks ? The level descriptions within the National Curriculum at the end of a key stage The aim of any intervention is to provide as much help as is required, but not to intervene more than is necessary. The three levels of support that are set out in the Code of Practice are: 1. School Action (or Early Years Action for younger children) 2. School Action Plus (or Early Years Action Plus for younger children) 3. Provision outlined in a statement of SEN School action Once practitioners have identified that a child has special educational needs, the setting should intervene through School Action (or Early Years Action for younger children). At this level of support the class teacher, the school’s special educational needs coordinating officer (SENCO), a Home Learning College. Learning Support Assistant (LSA) or another member of the school’s staff gives the child extra help. The child has an Individual Education Plan (IEP) which gives details of the targets the pupils must work towards and the action/support that is required to help them to achieve those targets. IEPs will usually be linked to the main areas of literacy, mathematics, behaviour and social skills. The parents must be consulted and involved so that they too can help their child at home, in line with what the school is doing. The aim of School Action is to make it possible for the child to progress to the point where they no longer need extra help. School action plus If the intervention made as a result of School Action is not helping the child to meet his/her targets, the SENCO may need to seek advice and support from external sources, such as teaching support services and other agencies. An Educational Psychologist might be consulted to plan what forms of intervention might best help the pupil achieve the targets set out in his/her Individual Education Plan (IEP). This kind of intervention is referred to as School Action Plus (or Early Years Action Plus for younger children). The aim of School Action Plus support is to enable a child to progress so that they move from School Action Plus to School Action, or no longer need any extra help at all. Individual Education Children who are recognised as having SEN are entitled to an Individual Education Plan (IEP) as part of the School Action or School Action Plus process. An IEP should record what is different from, or additional to, those arrangements that are in place for the rest of the group or class. An IEP is written by the class teacher to help the parents and the school identify the child’s needs and to target areas of particular difficulty. Typically they focus on three or four targets that match the child’s needs. This document records the strategies that are to be employed to enable the child to progress. It should also show the steps that are to be taken to support the child’s learning and set a date for reviewing their progress. It will normally include information about: ? Learning targets for the child to reach in a given time ? Who will support the child and how that support will be organised ? What materials and methods should be used It may not always be possible to set measurable targets for every area of the curriculum, nevertheless, where targets are used, they can help individual pupils to focus energy and resources on raising standards in critical areas of the child’s school life. A statutory assessment In a great many cases, the individual needs of a child with SEN can be met via access to specialist approaches and equipment or to alternative or adapted activities that are available through School Action or School Action Plus. But there are a few exceptional circumstances, where children require more support than these two processes can provide. If the child does not make the expected advancement despite these measures, the school can ask the local education authority (LEA) to carry out a Statutory Assessment of special educational needs. The Statutory Assessment is a formal process where the LEA seeks advice from a number of different sources, for example: ? Educational advice ? Parental advice ? Medical advice ? Psychological advice ? Social services advice ? Any other advice which is considered desirable  At the end of the process the LEA will decide whether or not to issue the child with a statement of special educational needs. This statement describes all the child’s needs and special help requirements. There are many different types of professionals who can offer support to children who are not following the expected pattern of development, the support is usually coordinated by the schools, SENCO (Special Educational Needs Co-ordinator). If a child starts school with a disability the SENCO will have been informed by the child’s parents prior to the child starting. The child may already be receiving support from a number of professionals. For example a child with a physical disability may well be receiving treatment from a physiotherapist, with exercises given to strengthen their gross motor skills. The physiotherapist will co-ordinate with the SENCO as to the needs of the child and advise the school on what sort of support is needed in school to encourage development. Whist at school if a teacher becomes concerned about the development pattern of a child, they would inform the SENCO who is responsible for the identification of special needs. The SENCO would in turn speak to the child’s parents about their child’s development, and depending on the area of development concerned, suggest an assessment by an outside professional. The professional would in turn give the SENCO advice as to how the child should be supported in school in order to encourage development, this may involve the school providing support or it may involve the professional giving direct support. It is important that any needs are identified so that the correct support/intervention is given in order to prevent the development delay getting worse and spreading to other areas of the child’s development. Some of the interventions used are explained below. What is early intervention? Early intervention is a system of services that helps babies and toddlers with developmental delays or disabilities. Early intervention focuses on helping eligible babies and toddlers learn the basic and brand-new skills that typically develop during the first three years of life, such as: ? physical (reaching, rolling, crawling, and walking); ?cognitive (thinking, learning, solving problems); ?communication (talking, listening, understanding); ?social/emotional (playing, feeling secure and happy); and ? self-help (eating, dressing). Examples of early intervention services | If an infant or toddler has a disability or a developmental delay in one or more of these developmental areas, that child will likely be eligible for early intervention services. Those services will be tailored to meet the child’s individual needs and may include: ? Assistive technology (devices a child might need) ?Audiology or hearing services ?Speech and language services ?Counseling and training for a family ?Medical services ?Nursing services ?Nutrition services ?Occupational therapy ?Physical therapy? Psychological services Services may also be provided to address the needs and priorities of the child’s family. Family-directed services are meant to help family members understand the special needs of their child and how to enhance his or her development. Who’s eligible for early intervention? Early intervention is intended for infants and toddlers who have a developmental delay or disability. Eligibility is determined by evaluating the child (with parents’ consent) to see if the little one does, in fact, have a delay in development or a disability. Eligible children can receive  early intervention services from birth through the third birthday (and sometimes beyond). For some children, from birth | Sometimes it is known from the moment a child is born that early intervention services will be essential in helping the child grow and develop. Often this is so for children who are diagnosed at birth with a specific condition or who experience significant prematurity, very low birth weight, illness, or surgery soon after being born. Even before heading home from the hospital, this child’s parents may be given a referral to their local early intervention office. For others, because of delays in development | Some children have a relatively routine entry into the world, but may develop more slowly than others, experience set backs, or develop in ways that seem very different from other children. For these children, a visit with a developmental pediatrician and a thorough evaluation may lead to an early intervention referral. Parents don’t have to wait for a referral to early intervention, however. If you’re concerned about your child’s development, you may contact your local program directly and ask to have your child evaluated. That evaluation is provided free of charge. If you’re not sure how to locate the early intervention program in your community—keep reading. We give that information a bit further down the page. However a child comes to be referred, evaluated, and determined eligible, early intervention services provide vital support so that children with developmental needs can thrive and grow. The Early Intervention Grant (EIG) replaced a number of centrally directed grants to support services for children, young people and families.

Drugs in Our Society - 1376 Words

The consumption of drug has been done in all societies for ages, but with the pass of the time it has changed the characteristics of the consumption. This situation is because the influence of social factors. Now days, our society is infest with this issue â€Å"DRUGS†. The use of most of the drugs are illegal, however it had become normal to use it. It is frequently see that its consumption can be from a regular kid to a high executive person. As an example we can go to the street and find a lot of homeless people asking you money for food, when actually they are asking money for alcohol or even drugs other example is the recently elected governor of New York David Paterson said that he used cocaine in his 20s. Also we can see than some†¦show more content†¦MARIJUANA: in some states this drug is legal, only for medical use. This is the 2nd most popular drug with the youth. Made up of you seeds, flowers, stems and leaves made from the Cannabis plant. AMPHETAMINE: A type of drug which increases energy but decreases you appetite. Treats narcolepsy and some forms of depression. HEROIN: A highly addictive drug. It is white, odorless, bitter crystalline compound that is derived from morphine. ECSTASY: Each tablet has a different effect. Usually Ecstasy is taken morally but, it can be snorted or injected. TOBACCO: Tobacco is dried leaves from the Tobacco plant. Normally it will be used in the cigarette form. It can also be used in cigars, pipes, chewed or sniffed. (30% of our population smoke or use some sort of drug by the age of 16 or older.) COCAINE: White powder which can be smoked, sniffed, eaten, or injected. The person who is using Cocaine feels a powerful urge that makes them feel over confident or even invincible. MAGIC MUSHROOMS: The magic mushrooms come in many different forms. It is made out to psilocin and psilocybin. You take this drug by eating it. The amount you take will vary on the effect. LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYL AMIDE: LSD is one of the biggest mood changing drugs. It is found from a fungus that is grown on rye and other grains. TREATMENT The treatment for this disease is very important, because if there is not treatment drugs can cause the death. In orderShow MoreRelated Drugs in Our Society Essay1252 Words   |  6 PagesDrugs in Our Society With the use of drugs being such a controversial issue in today’s society we felt as a group it was important to further explore this issue. As we possess a high interest in how drugs affect a number of social groups. 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